Emotional Intelligence (EI) has gained considerable attention in both academic and popular literature since the 1990s, to the point where it has perhaps become just another tick-box exercise for people. If you want to be successful, you must become more emotionally intelligent, or so they say. In other words, you must work at it. This is a flawed approach, in my view, because, on the one hand, it may send ordinarily good people off course and cause them to question their own integrity. On the other hand, it may give manipulative people the ammunition to manipulate further. For me, emotional intelligence is about waking up to the fact that other people matter just as much as you and more than the goals you pursue.
Originally conceptualised by Salovey and Mayer (1990), and later popularised by Daniel Goleman's book Emotional Intelligence (1995), EI broadly refers to the ability to perceive, regulate, and utilise emotions in oneself and others towards productive and healthy ends. Despite its popularity, the study of emotional intelligence lacks a universally agreed-upon framework.
The Ability Model: Mayer and Salovey
Salovey and Mayer (1990) proposed the first formal model of emotional intelligence (EI) as a form of intelligence encompassing specific emotion-related mental skills or abilities. Their framework identified three key components:
Appraisal and Expression of Emotion: This component refers to the foundational capacity to identify and effectively communicate emotions, both in oneself and in others. It encompasses both verbal and non-verbal recognition of emotional states and spans two key domains: the self and others.
Regulation of Emotion: This domain involves the ability to manage and influence emotional states, both intrapersonally and interpersonally. Effective emotional regulation entails being open to emotional experiences, monitoring emotional reactions, and adjusting emotional responses in a way that supports well-being and goal attainment.
Utilisation of Emotion: The third component refers to the ability to harness emotions to support cognitive processes such as attention, memory, planning, and problem-solving. Emotions are viewed not only as reactions but also as signals that can guide reasoning and behaviour.
In their 1997 revision, Mayer and Salovey restructured EI into four branches:
Perception, Appraisal, and Expression: This includes recognising emotions in oneself and others.
Emotional Facilitation of Thinking: Emotions aid in prioritising information and enhancing cognitive processes.
Understanding and Analysing Emotions: Involves recognising emotional transitions and complex feelings.
Reflective Regulation: Concerns with managing emotional states to promote well-being and cognitive growth.
This model treats EI as a cognitive-emotional ability, distinct from personality traits, and suitable for assessment via performance-based measures (e.g., MEIS, MSCEIT).
Criticism of the Ability Model
Despite its theoretical precision, the ability model has faced criticism. Notably, the third and fourth branches—facilitation of thinking and understanding emotions—are conceptually vague and difficult to operationalise. Researchers question whether these components reflect intelligence or simply restate existing constructs like motivation and attention. There are also methodological challenges in performance-based measurement: defining “correct” answers in emotional domains is not straightforward. The MSCEIT attempted to resolve this using consensus and expert scoring, but questions remain regarding its construct validity and cultural fairness.
Mixed Models: Bar-On and Goleman
Mixed models, such as those proposed by Bar-On (1997) and Goleman (1995), conceptualise EI as a broad set of competencies and personality traits related to emotional and social functioning. Bar-On's model, in particular, includes five domains:
Intrapersonal Skills (e.g., self-awareness, self-regard)
Interpersonal Skills (e.g., empathy, social responsibility)
Adaptability (e.g., problem solving, flexibility)
Stress Management (e.g., stress tolerance, impulse control)
General Mood (e.g., happiness, optimism)
Goleman’s model, particularly as adapted for organisations, comprises four major clusters of competencies, each involving specific emotional and social skills.
Self-Awareness
The ability to accurately perceive one’s own emotions and recognise their impact.
Includes emotional self-awareness, accurate self-assessment, and self-confidence.
This competency is foundational; individuals must be aware of their emotional states before they can regulate them.
Self-Management
The capacity to regulate one’s emotional reactions and impulses in adaptive ways.
Includes emotional self-control, transparency, adaptability, achievement orientation, and initiative.
Enables individuals to stay composed, direct their behaviour constructively, and pursue goals despite obstacles.
Social Awareness
The ability to sense, understand, and respond to others’ emotions.
Includes empathy, organisational awareness, and service orientation.
Empathy here is crucial for effective communication and relationship-building.
Relationship Management
The ability to manage interactions constructively and build positive relationships.
Includes inspirational leadership, influence, developing others, conflict management, and teamwork.
This domain extends EI into leadership and group dynamics.
These constructs are assessed using self-report inventories, notably the EQ-i. While popular in applied settings, these models blur the lines between emotion, intelligence, and personality. As Neubauer and Freudenthaler (2005) argue, their breadth raises concerns over construct validity—if EI includes so many traits, it risks becoming indistinguishable from general personality.
Trait Emotional Intelligence
Petrides and Furnham (2001) addressed the ambiguity in mixed models by proposing the concept of trait EI, defined as a constellation of emotional self-perceptions located within the lower levels of personality. Trait EI is assessed exclusively via self-report and reflects behavioural dispositions and perceived emotional competencies. Neubauer and Freudenthaler (2005) note that this approach distinguishes EI as a personality variable rather than a cognitive ability, aligning it more closely with self-efficacy than with intelligence per se.
Emotional Intelligence remains a developing construct with significant theoretical and practical implications. The ability model offers a structured, psychometrically grounded approach, but it struggles with operational challenges and conceptual clarity, particularly in higher-order branches. Mixed and trait models offer broader, more applied perspectives, though they risk conflating EI with established personality traits.
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